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Adam Smith’s theory of social development examines human history by dividing it into four fundamental stages: hunting, pastoralism, agriculture, and commerce. According to this theory, the progress of societies is built not on intellectual accumulation, but on economic factors and the expansion of property rights. Smith views the most advanced stage, commercial society, as the
okumak için tıklayınızAdam Smith distinguishes four distinct stages of social development based on the expansion of the concept of personality and the progress made in the scope of rights. His view of history as a philosophy of history, which also consists of an understanding of “four-stage historical progress,” is of great importance not only as another expression
okumak için tıklayınız1. Introduction Zhuangzi (369–286 BC) is one of the most original representatives of Taoist thought. His philosophy is less about establishing a metaphysical system and more about problematizing how humans perceive the world. The passage from his work, Zhuangzi , known in the literature as the “butterfly dream ,” is one of the most debated epistemological texts in Chinese
okumak için tıklayınızFathers and Sons, one of the most important works of world literature, is also the masterpiece of its author, Turgenev. The novel is significant not only for illuminating a crucial point in Russia’s political history but also for its ruthless dramatization of generational differences, juxtaposing the new with the old, the rising with the dying,
okumak için tıklayınız19th-century Russian novels offer a philosophical space for discussion regarding the formation of the modern subject. While Rakhmetov in Chernyshevsky’s * What Is to Be Done? * represents the rational, disciplined, and ideologically pure “new man,” Raskolnikov in Dostoevsky’s * Crime and Punishment * reveals the fragmented, contradictory, and tragic nature of the modern individual. 1. Introduction: The Literary
okumak için tıklayınız19th-century Russian literature is not only a field of aesthetic production but also a textual laboratory of political, philosophical, and ethical conflicts. Turgenev’s Fathers and Sons , Chernyshevsky’s What Is to Be Done?, and Dostoevsky’s Crime and Punishment are among the most critical texts in this laboratory. This study examines these three novels as links in an ideological chain, investigating how
okumak için tıklayınızLev Tolstoy’s novel War and Peace (1869) is not only an epic account of historical events but also one of the pioneering examples of character development in the modern novel. Fyodor Dolokhov , one of the novel’s remarkable secondary characters, seriously challenges the traditional hero typology with his moral ambiguity, propensity for violence, and actions prioritizing self-interest. 1. The
okumak için tıklayınızThis article examines how Heinrich Moritz Chalybaus’s presentation of Hegelian dialectics as a “thesis-antithesis-synthesis” scheme in his 1837 work, *Historische Entwicklung der speculativen Philosophie von Kant bis Hegel* , distorts the specific logic of Hegelian philosophy. The study demonstrates that this tripartite scheme is not a methodological principle in Hegel’s fundamental texts; instead, it argues that Hegelian
okumak için tıklayınızIn Leo Tolstoy’s novel War and Peace , the inability of the character Vasili Denisov to pronounce the letter “r,” while seemingly a characteristic detail on the surface, is directly related to the novel’s deeper structure, its understanding of language, corporeality, and the historical subject. This article aims to examine Denisov’s speech defect within the context of
okumak için tıklayınızLev Tolstoy’s novel War and Peace has often been classified in literary history as the “pinnacle of historical realism.” However, this classification risks obscuring the mythological, archetypal, and cosmological elements that operate within the work’s deeper structure. Tolstoy systematically dismantles the subject-centered, progressive, and rationalist assumptions of modern historiography, consciously bringing his narrative closer to a proto-mythical
okumak için tıklayınızLev Tolstoy’s novel War and Peace is not only a historical account of the Napoleonic Wars, but also a profound philosophical critique of the modern understanding of history, the myth of heroism, and the will of the subject. One of the central figures in this critique is Marshal Mikhail Illarionovich Kutuzov. Tolstoy deliberately avoids glorifying Kutuzov as
okumak için tıklayınızGeorge Orwell’s novel 1984 is one of the most comprehensive literary texts demonstrating that totalitarian power operates not only through physical force but also by transforming the subject’s consciousness. In the novel, power does not merely eliminate its enemy; it aims to sincerely convince them of its own righteousness. This choice is not a coincidental
okumak için tıklayınızErnest Hemingway’s The Old Man and the Sea deeply questions one of the fundamental questions of human existence, namely the relationship between struggle and the search for meaning. Santiago’s epic struggle with a giant swordfish is not only a physical effort, but also represents man’s own limits, his relationship with nature, and his effort to
okumak için tıklayınızIn Leo Tolstoy’s novel War and Peace , Prince Andrey Bolkonsky is one of the figures who embodies the most intense internal conflicts in the narrative. Andrey’s war experience, the death of his wife, and the collapse of his ideals transform him into an increasingly withdrawn, introverted, and emotionally numb individual. When this state of mind is read in
okumak için tıklayınızTolstoy’s critique of free will, developed in War and Peace , shares a strong intellectual kinship with Spinoza’s doctrine of necessity, one of the most radical models of determinism in modern philosophy . Both thinkers consider free will an illusion of consciousness stemming from a lack of knowledge of the true causes of human actions . However, Tolstoy develops this idea
okumak için tıklayınızLev Tolstoy’s novel War and Peace (1865–1869) is not only an epic account of the Napoleonic Wars, but also a comprehensive inquiry into the philosophy of history , ethics , and the issue of free will . In the novel, Tolstoy systematically critiques both narratives of individual heroism and the concept of “history of great men,” raising the question of whether human actions
okumak için tıklayınızThis study psychoanalyzes the character Pavel Ivanovich Chichikov in Nikolai Gogol’s novel Dead Souls (1842) within the context of Jacques Lacan’s concept of the “Big Other.” Chichikov’s obsession with money and social prestige can be interpreted not as an individual ambition, but rather as a manifestation of his attempt to seek the approval of the
okumak için tıklayınızThis video explores the philosophical similarities and fundamental differences between Hermann Hesse’s river metaphor in Siddhartha and Friedrich Nietzsche’s idea of eternal recurrence. It emphasizes that both concepts reject a linear understanding of time, viewing existence as a continuous process of becoming. The video contrasts Siddhartha’s mystical peace and silent wisdom attained through the river
okumak için tıklayınızHermann Hesse’s novel Siddhartha (1922) and Friedrich Nietzsche’s Thus Spoke Zarathustra (1883–85), despite drawing on different cultural and philosophical traditions, are two fundamental texts that center on the modern individual’s search for meaning. In Siddhartha , wisdom is presented as an intuitive and holistic understanding through the metaphor of the river ; in Zarathustra , this understanding is transformed into an ontological and ethical test
okumak için tıklayınızGeorge Orwell’s novel 1984 is one of the most powerful literary texts that makes visible the dominance that modern power exerts not only over bodies and behaviors, but also over language, the material basis of thought. In the novel, the totalitarian regime, in order to sustain its power, goes beyond violence and surveillance, aiming to
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